Is Prejudice and Discrimination a Myth or a Real Life Situation Essay Example for Free

Is Prejudice and Discrimination a Myth or a Real Life Situation Essay Prejudice is a cultural attitude that rests on negative stereotypes about individuals or groups because of their cultural, religious, racial, or ethnic background. Discrimination is the active denial of desired goals from a category of persons. A category can be based on sex, ethnicity, nationality, religion, language, or class. More recently, disadvantaged groups now also include those based on gender, age, and physical disabilities. Prejudice and discrimination are deeply imbedded at both the individual and societal levels. Attempts to eradicate prejudice and discrimination must thus deal with prevailing beliefs or ideologies, and social structure. Although there is no wide agreement as to the cause of prejudice and discrimination, there is a consensus that they constitute a learned behaviour. The internalization of prejudice starts with parents and, later, teachersthe groups primary in the formation of attitudes within children. The media and social institutions solidify prejudicial attitudes, giving them social legitimacy. In a sense, it is incorrect to speak of eradicating prejudice, since prejudice is learned. At best, one can reduce prejudice and discrimination. Society looks most often to education and legislation to alleviate prejudice and discriminationfor reasons still not clearly known, inter-group contact alone is not enough to reduce prejudice. On one hand, multicultural education, whether direct or indirect, constitute the mainstay of educational efforts to eliminate prejudice. On the other hand, the emphasis on civil rights, enlightened immigration policies, and mandates for quota hiring are the cornerstone of legal approaches to alleviating the effects of prejudice and discrimination. The most overlooked area in resolving the problems of prejudice and discrimination lies in the web of close relationships where genuine feelings of love can be fostered and strengthened. The private sphere may indeed be the last frontier where a solution to the problems of prejudice may have to be found.

Two Middle Range Theory Evaluation Paper

Two Middle Range Theory Evaluation Paper The purpose of this paper is to evaluate two middle range theories abilities to test the concept of comfort for the practice question Do neonatal nurses who care for dying infants who attend an end of life care educational training program compared to neonatal nurses who do not attend the program experience a difference in comfort levels (Comfort Level for Caring for Dying Infants (CLCDI)) when caring for a dying infant? A summary of two middle range theories the Comfort Theory (Kolcaba, 1994) and the Theory of Self-Efficacy (Resnick, xxxx) will be summarized and then critiqued using Smith and Liehrs (xxxx) Framework for Evaluating Middle Range Theory. The discussion will conclude with a summary of strengths and weakness of the theories and a research hypothesis to reflect that reflects the most appropriate theories conceptual definitions and propositions. Introduction Background Despite nurses as frontline caregivers for dying patients and their families many nurses have identified that they struggle with the responding adequately to the emotional devastation to parents and siblings when caring for a neonate with an unresolved terminal condition (Frommet, 1991). With the advances in neonatal care and life sustaining treatments, sick and very preterm infants do not often die in utero, at birth, or shortly after birth, but instead they often live much longer in a healthcare paradigm of comfort care and dignified death. This relatively new emersion of the end of life model integrates a more holistic approach which considers a more comprehensive view of the patients needs (emotional, spiritual, and medical) (Mallory, 2002; Mallory, 2003; WHO, 2002). With this paradigm shift, health care professionals are obligated to assess the adequacy of their own knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs about death and dying. Multiple studies regarding nurses preparation for dealing with death and dying have consistently found that nurses that nurses do not feel educationally prepared to care for dying patients and insist that healthcare professionals should receive additional education on end of life care to bridge the deficit gap (Frommet, 1991; Robinson, 2004; White, Coyne, Patel, 2001; Beckstrand, Callister, Kirchhoff, 2006). These findings have led to a further observation that nurses caring for these complex patients regularly experience moral distress from competing principles of their personal, collegial, organizational, and religious/spiritual ethics (Frommet, 1991). Practice Problem To help ease this moral distress an evidence based end-of -life educational training program for NICU nurses has been successfully implemented in several neonatal intensive care units (NICUs) to increase the nurses comfort level of caring for neonates and their families at the end of life (Bagbi, Rogers, Gomez, McMahon, 2008). To determine if an evidence based end of life educational program impacts nurses comfort levels in caring for dying infants and their families a question was developed using the population (P) intervention (I) compared to (C) outcome (O) format (Newhouse, Dearhold, 1997). The following discussion will focus on this PICO question Do neonatal nurses who care for dying infants who attend an end of life care educational training program compared to neonatal nurses who do not attend the program experience a difference in comfort levels (Comfort Level for Caring for Dying Infants (CLCDI)) when caring for a dying infant? During the intervention a monthly 1 hour, neo natal end of life education program will be conducted over a 6 month period of time based on research about what nurses would like to know about caring for a dying infant (Robinson, 2004). For the purpose of this problem, comfort is defined as the ability of the NICU nurse(s) to show adequate knowledge and skills in providing neonatal end of life care for dying babies and their families. For this problem comfort will be measured as a score on the ordinal scale of Comfort Level Caring for Dying Infants (CLCDI). The instrument consisting of 15 items, measured on a 5 point Likert type scale equates scores of 1=never; 2=rarely; 3=sometimes; 4=often, 5=always measures the level of comfort a NICU nurse has caring for dying infants as opposed to their perception toward pediatric or neonatal end of life care (Bagbi, Rogers, Gomez, and McMahon, 2008). In evaluating the score, the higher the reported score the greater level of comfort NICU nurses have in caring for dying babies. Testing the Concept of Comfort A portion of Kolbacas (1991) Theory of Comfort and Resnicks (2008) Theory of Self-Efficacy, two middle range theories, will be used to test the concept of comfort for providing an organizing structure. Based on previous studies about nurses comfort when caring for patients, propositions five and six of Kolbacas Theory of Comfort seem to be a promising fit for this problem (Kolbaca, 1991, Kolbaca, XXX). These propositions collectively propose that patients, nurses, and other members of the healthcare team agree upon desirable and realistic health seeking behaviors (HSBs) and if enhanced comfort is achieved, patients, family members, and/or nurses are strengthened to engage in HSBs, comfort is further enhanced (Kolbaca, 1991). However, comfort as defined conceptually in this case as knowledge and skill can alternatively be equated with a sense of competence or self-efficacy of the NICU nurse to care for a dying infant and their family. There are many examples in the nursing literature linking self-efficacy to knowledge and skill (xxxx, xxxxx).) Self-efficacy, knowledge, and skills are also central to Banduras theory, which is the basis for Resnicks (xxxx) Self-Efficacy theory. Self-efficacy as described in Resnicks (xxxx) Theory of Self-Efficacy for this context is described as the judgment about the nurses ability to organize and execute a course of action required to attain designated types of performances. The theory states that perceived self-efficacy, defined as the individuals judgment of his or her capabilities to organize and execute courses of action, is a determinant of performance (Resnick, xxxx). Self-efficacy beliefs provide the foundation for human motivation, well-being, and personal accomplishment (Resnick, xxxx). According to Resnick (XXXX) theory individuals with higher levels of self-efficacy for a specific behavior (caring for a dying infant) are more likely to attempt that behavior. There are many examples in the literature using the Theory o f Self-Efficacy to support nursing education interventions (xxxxx, xxxxx). For these reasons, Resnicks Theory of Self-Efficacy (xxx) will be used to test the concept of nurses comfort or knowledge and skill (self-efficacy) in caring for dying infants and their families. The purpose of the following discussion is to summarize, describe, analyze, and evaluate these theories using the Framework for the Evaluation of Middle Range Theories (Smith, 2008) and conclude with a synthesis and research hypothesis to reflect conceptual definitions and propositions of the theory with the best fit. Theory Summaries: Comfort and Self-Efficacy Kolcabas Comfort Theory The Comfort Theory is a humanistic, holistic, patient need based nursing derived middle range theory (Kolbaca, xxxx). The concept of comfort has had a historic and consistent presence in nursing. In the early 1900s , comfort was considered to be a goal for both nursing and medicine, as it was believed that comfort led to recovery (McIlveen Morse, 1995). Over time comfort has become an increasingly minor focus, at times reserved only for those patients for whom no further medical treatment options are available (McIlveen Morse, 1995). The term comfort is used as a noun (comforter), adjective (comforting), verb (to comfort), or adverb (comfort the patient) (xxx). It is also used as a negative (absence of discomfort), neutral (ease), or positive (hope inspiring). Webster (1990) defines comfort as relief from distress; to soothe in sorrow or distress; a person or thing that comforts; a state of ease and quiet enjoyment free from worry; anything that makes life easy; and the lessening of misery or grief by calming or inspiring with hope. The origin of comfort is confortrare which means to strengthen greatly(Kolcaba, 1992). Based on the diversity of these terms comfort is a complex term. Kolcabas (1991) concept analysis of comfort helped to clarify the role of comfort as a holistic concept for nursing. This review confirmed that comfort is a positive concept and is associated with activities that nurture and strengthen patients (David, 2002). Over a period of years and revisions Kolcaba (1994) developed the comfort the ory which continues to evolve and change with changes as recent as 2007 (Figure 2). Kolcaba (1994, 2001, 2003) has defined comfort as the immediate state of being strengthened through having the human needs for relief, ease, and transcendence addressed in four contexts of experience (physical, psychospiritual, sociocultural, and environmental). The terms relief, ease, and transcendence are types of comfort that occur physically and mentally (Figure 2). The terms are defined based on definitions from medicine, theology, ergonomics, psychology, and nursing (Kolcaba Kolcaba, 1991). Relief is the state of having a discomfort mitigated or alleviated. Ease is the absence of specific discomforts. Transcendence is the ability to rise above discomforts when they cannot be eradicated or avoided (e.g., the child feels confident about ambulation although (s)he knows it will exacerbate pain). Transcendence, as a type of comfort, accounts for its strengthening property and reminds nurses to never give up helping their children and family members feel comforted. Interventions for increasing transcendence can be targeted to improving the environment, increasing social support, or providing reassurance. The three types of comfort occur in four contexts of experience: physical, psychospiritual, sociocultural, and environmental. These contexts were derived from an extensive review of the nursing literature on holism (Kolcaba, 1992). When the three types of comfort are juxtaposed with the four contexts of experience, a 12-cell grid is created, which is called a taxonomic structure (TS) (Figure 1) . Taken together, these cells represent all relevant aspects (defining attributes) of comfort for nursing and demonstrate the holistic nature of comfort as an important goal of care. All comfort needs can be placed somewhere on the taxonomic structure, and the cells are not mutually exclusive. A sample pediatric case study using the TS as a guide for a holistic comfort assessment is demonstrated below (see Figure 1). The concepts for the middle range for Comfort Theory include comfort needs, comfort interventions, intervening variables, enhanced comfort, health-seeking behaviors, and institutional integrity (Kolcaba, 1994). All of these concepts are relative to patients, families, and nurses (Kolcaba, 2003; Kolcaba, Tilton, Drouin, 2006). There are eight propositions which link the above concepts together. All or parts of the Comfort Theory can be tested for research (Peterson Bredow, 2010). In the comfort theory, Kolcaba asserts that when healthcare needs of a patient are appropriately assessed and proper nursing interventions carried out to address those needs, taking into account variables intervening in the situation, the outcome is enhanced patient comfort over time (Kolcaba, 2007). Once comfort is enhanced, the patient is likely to increase health-seeking behaviors. These behaviors may be internal to the patient (eg, wound healing or improved oxygenation), external to the patient (eg, active participation in rehabilitation exercises), or a peaceful death. Furthermore, Kolcaba asserted that when a patient experiences health-seeking behaviors, the integrity of the institution is subsequently increased because the increase in health-seeking behaviors will result in improved outcomes. Increased institutional integrity lends itself to the development and implementation of best practices and best policies secondary to the positive outcomes experienced by patients (Kolcab a, 2007). To translate the concepts to practice the effectiveness of a holistic intervention can be targeted to the taxonomic structure for enhancing comfort in a specific patient, family, or nurse population over time. Holistic comfort is defined as the immediate experience of being strengthened through having the needs for relief, ease, and transcendence met in four contexts of experience (physical, psychospiritual, social, and environmental).The comfort theory has been operationalized in many research settings with a variety of patient and target populations ranging from end of life care to the comfort of nurses (xxxx). Resnick Theory of Self-Efficacy Self efficacy is described as a way to organize an individuals judgment of his or her capability to execute a course of action. The Theory of Self-efficacy states that self-efficacy expectations and outcome expectations are not only influenced by behavior, but also verbal encouragement, reflective thinking, physiological sensations and role or self-modeling (Bandura, 1995).. Through self evaluation an individual judges their capability to perform and established self expectations which is visually depicted in the conceptual model (Appendix 2) (Resnick, 2008). Resnicks Theory of Self Efficacy is based on Banduras social cognitive theory and conceptualizes person-behavior-environment as triadic reciprocity the foundation for reciprocal determinism (Bandura, 1977, 1986). Most of the research into self-efficacy beliefs among older adults has been quantitative and has consistently supported the influence of those beliefs on behavior. However, it has not been established how efficacy beliefs actually influence motivation in older adults, or what sources of efficacy-enhancing information help strengthen those beliefs. Kolcabas Comfort Theory: Description, Analysis, and Evaluation Theory Description Historical context. The Comfort Theory is a humanistic, holistic, patient need based nursing derived middle range theory (Kolbaca, xxxx). The concept of comfort has had a historic and consistent presence in nursing. In the early 1900s , comfort was considered to be a goal for both nursing and medicine, as it was believed that comfort led to recovery (McIlveen Morse, 1995). Over time comfort has become an increasingly minor focus, at times reserved only for those patients for whom no further medical treatment options are available (McIlveen Morse, 1995). The term comfort is used as a noun (comforter), adjective (comforting), verb (to comfort), or adverb (comfort the patient) (xxx). It is also used as a negative (absence of discomfort), neutral (ease), or positive (hope inspiring). Webster (1990) defines comfort as relief from distress; to soothe in sorrow or distress; a person or thing that comforts; a state of ease and quiet enjoyment free from worry; anything that makes life easy; and the lessening of misery or grief by calming or inspiring with hope. The origin of comfort is confortrare which means to strengthen greatly(Kolcaba, 1992). Based on the diversity of these terms comfort is a complex term. Kolcabas (1991) concept analysis of comfort helped to clarify the role of comfort as a holistic concept for nursing. This review confirmed that comfort is a positive concept and is associated with activities that nurture and strengthen patients (David, 2002). Over a period of years and revisions Kolcaba (1994) developed the comfort the ory which continues to evolve and change with changes as recent as 2007 (Figure 2). Structural Components. Assumptions. Kolcabas Theory of Comfort (1994) makes four basic assumptions about reality. She assumes that humans beings have holistic responses to complex stimuli; comfort is a desirable holistic state that is germane to the discipline of nursing; human beings actively strive to meet, or to have met, their basic comfort needs, and that comfort is more than the absence of pain, anxiety, and other physical discomforts (Kolcaba , 2009). Concepts. Kolcaba defines six concepts of comfort which are relative to patients, families, and nurses (Table 1) . The term family, as defined by Kolcaba (2003) encompasses significant others as determined by the patient (Kolcaba, 2003; Kolcaba, Tilton Drouin, 2006). The first concept is of comfort needs which is the relief/ease/transcendence in physical, psychospiritual, sociocultural and environmental contexts of human experience. Comfort interventions in the model are defined as interventions of the health care team specifically targeting comfort of the patient, family and nurses. Intervening variables are positive or negative factors over which the health care team has little control, including physical limitations of the hospital or patients home, cultural influences, socioeconomic factors, prognosis, concurrent medical or psychological conditions. Health-seeking behaviors are those behaviors of patient, family or nurses (conscious or unconscious) which promote well-being; may b e internal, external or towards promoting a peaceful death. The final concept, institutional integrity, added in most recently, are values, financial stability and wholeness of health care facilities at the local state or national levels. Propositions. To help test the concept of nurses comfort caring for dying infants, propositions five and six of Kolcabas comfort theory are examined. These propositions state that patients, nurses, and other members of the healthcare team agree upon desirable and realistic health seeking behaviors (HSBs) (five) and if enhanced comfort is achieved, patients, family members, and/or nurses are strengthened to engage in HSBs, which further enhances comfort (six). These propositions provide rationale for why nurses and other health care professionals should focus on the patient, family, or in this case the nurses comfort beyond altruistic reasons. Because health seeking behaviors include internal and external behaviors almost any health-related outcome important in a healthcare setting can be classified as a health seeking behavior (Peterson Bredow, 2010). The desirable and realistic health seeking behavior (HSB) for this study is nurses comfort (knowledge and skills) to relieve moral di stress in caring for a dying infant and their family. Several studies support that moral and other types of distress are frequently observed in nurses who care for dying infants (Frommet, 1991) and most importantly indicate that nurses are seeking education regarding patient end of life issues (XXXXX). It is believed that reducing this distress and frustration can be affected through an effective end of life educational programs and is likely to improve the knowledge and skills nurses need to help increase their comfort level in caring for dying infants (xxxxx). Functional Components. Visualizing the concepts in the conceptual model, the Theory Analysis and Evaluation To analyze and evaluate Kolcabas Comfort Theory (1994) the substantive foundation, structural integrity, and functional adequacy of the theory using Smith and Liehrs (2008) Framework for the Evaluation of Middle Range Theories is discussed below (Appendix 1). Substantive foundations. Assessing the substantive foundation of a middle range theory is based on four criteria (Smith, 2003). The first criterion evaluates whether the theory is within the focus of the discipline of nursing. Kolcabas comfort theory successfully addresses four concepts comprising the metaparadigm of nursing, defining the concepts as they correspond to the theory (Dowd, 2002; Kolbaca, 2007) as well as presents a diagram of how the Comfort Theory relates theoretically to other nursing concepts (Figure 2) (Kolcaba, 1994) . Nursing is described as the process of assessing the patients comfort needs, developing and implementing appropriate nursing interventions, and evaluating patient comfort following nursing interventions. Person is described as the recipient of nursing care; the patient may be an individual, family, institution, or community. Environment is considered to be the external surroundings of the patient and can be manipulated to increase patient comfort. Fi nally, health is viewed as the optimum functioning of the patient as they define it. The ability of the framework to suggest interventions that help guide nursing interventions to increase comfort supports the discipline of nursing, and in doing so meeting the first criteria. The second criterion evaluates whether the assumptions are specified and congruent with the focus. The four assumptions in the Comfort Theory are explicitly stated and so meet the second criteria. Comfort theory (xxxx) assumes that humans beings have holistic responses to complex stimuli; comfort is a desirable holistic state that is germane to the discipline of nursing; human beings actively strive to meet, or to have met, their basic comfort needs, and that comfort is more than the absence of pain, anxiety, and other physical discomforts (Kolcaba , 2009). Because the Comfort Theory (XXXX) substantially describes the concept of comfort at the middle range level of discourse, the third criterion of the substantive foundation is met. Kolcabas (1991) concept analysis of comfort helped to clarify the role of comfort as a holistic concept for nursing. This review confirmed that comfort is a positive concept and is associated with activities that nurture and strengthen patients (David, 2002). The Comfort Theory provides an excellent description, explanation, and interpretation of the comfort concept in multiple domains and practice settings. Comfort theory is at the middle range level in that is defined in a measurable way and can be operationalized in both research and practice settings. The final criterion for this category evaluates if the origins are rooted in practice and research experience. The Comfort Theory has been used in numerous practice and research settings to provide a framework where patients have comfort needs and enhancing their comfort is valued. It has also been used to enhance working environments, especially for nurses, and most recently as a framework for working toward national institutional recognitions. More specifically parts are all of the theory have been used to test the effectiveness of holistic interventions for increasing comfort (xxxxxxx), to demonstrate the correlation between comfort and subsequent HSBs (xxxxx) and to relate HSBs to desirable institutional outcomes. It has also been used as a framework for helping families make difficult decisions about end of life (xxxxx). International and national healthcare institutions have also used Comfort Theory to enhance the work environment for nurses (xxxx). In these cases, nurses comfo rt is of interest and is theoretically related to the integrity of the institution. Summarize specific studies and tools used here. Structural integrity. There are four criterion for evaluating structural integrity. The first criterion is that the concepts are well defined. The concepts (defined above) of comfort needs, comfort interventions, intervening variables, enhanced comfort, health-seeking behaviors, and institutional integrity are clearly defined and easy to understand. There are numerous examples of applying the concepts in the literature for further clarification (xxxxx). The second criterion of structural integrity is that concepts within the theory are at the middle range level of abstraction. The concepts of the Comfort Theory-comfort needs, comfort interventions, intervening variables, enhanced comfort, health seeking behaviors, and institutional integrity are near the same level on the ladder of abstraction at the middle range level. They are more concrete because they can and have been operationalized and measured (xxxxx). The third criterion of structural integrity is that there are no more concepts than needed to explain the phenomena. Overall, the concepts adequately explain the phenomena of comfort. The theory is synthesized and organized in a simple manner. Lastly, the fourth criterion evaluates whether the concepts and relationships among the concepts are logically presented with a model. In the Comfort Theory (1994) model the ideas are integrated to create an understanding of the whole phenomenon of comfort in a model. The Comfort Theory (1994) model is a great example of presenting the concepts and statements in a linear logical order so the appreciation of the theory can be recognized (Smith, 2003). Functional adequacy. Because the criterion for functional adequacy overlap somewhat the five criterion will be discussed collectively. The five criterion include: theory can be applied to a variety of practice environments and clients; empirical indicators have been identified; published examples exist of research and theory in practice; and that the theory has evolved through scholarly inquiry. The Comfort Theory easily meets all of these criterions. For example, the Comfort Theory has been used widely in a variety of research in practice settings and patient and family populations. Even though the Comfort Theory has been used most widely with patients and families at the end of life and surrounding holistic palliative care nursing interventions, there has been a broad application of the theory in other populations as well including mothers in labor (xxxx), Alzheimer patients (xxxx), pediatric intensive care unit patients and families (xxxx), patients on bedrest (xxxx), those underg oing radiation therapy (xxxx) and for infants comfort and pain (xxxx). Most recently research of using the theory in practice has expanded to support institutional nursing recognition and comfort in the nursing working environment. In each of the populations mentioned above a psychometric comfort instrument has been developed as empirical indicators of concepts in the theory. However, the empirical indicators extend beyond empiricism and some include perceptions, self reports, observable behaviors and biological indicators (Ford-Gibloe, Campbell, Berman, 1995; Reed, 1995). The Comfort Theory (1994) has also been revised with the latest revision in 2007. The empirical adequacy of the Comfort Theory is evidence of the maturity of this theory (Smith, 2003). Summary The Comfort Theory (1994) is a well defined and well tested theory. Its strength lies in the versatility, adaptability, and testability of the concepts. The comfort theory clearly defines the concepts in the theory and the relationship between them. Because the comfort theory meets most of the substantitive foundations, structural integrity, and functional adequacy criteria the Comfort Theory (1994) is a strong middle range theory. An area that could increase the generalizability especially for nursing institutions is a change in the term in the model of nursing interventions to comfort interventions (xxxxx). Resnicks Self-Efficacy Theory: Description, Analysis, and Evaluation Theory Description Historical context. Resnicks Theory of Self Efficacy is based on Banduras social cognitive theory and conceptualizes person-behavior-environment as triadic reciprocity the foundation for reciprocal determinism (Bandura, 1977, 1986). The cognitive appraisal of these factors results in a perception of a level of confidence in the individuals ability to perform a certain behavior. The positive performance of this behavior reinforces self-efficacy expectations (Bandura, 1995). Structural Components. Although it is not explicitly stated, the core of this theory assumes that people can consciously change and develop or control their behavior. This is important to the proposition that self-efficacy also can be changed or enhanced through reflective thought, general knowledge, skills to perform a specific behavior, and self influence. This perspective is rooted in the model of triadic reciprocality (foundation for reciprocal determinism) in which personal determinants (self-efficacy), environmental conditions (treatment conditions) and action (practice) are mutually interactive influences. Therefore, improving performance depends on changing some of these influences (Bandura, 1977). In order to determine self-efficacy an individual must have the opportunity for self evaluation to evaluate how likely it is he or she can achieve a given level of performance. Concepts. The two major components of self efficacy include self-efficacy expectations and outcome expectations (Table 2). Self-efficacy expectations are judgments about the personal ability to accomplish a given task. Outcome expectations are judgments about what will happen if a given task is accomplished. These two components are differentiated because individuals can believe a certain behavior will result in a specific outcome, however, they may not believe they are capable of performing the behavior required for the outcome to occur (Bandura 1977, 1986). For example, a NICU nurse may believe attending an end of life education series will increase his/her knowledge and skill and ease moral distress, but may not believe that they could provide sensitive care for some ethical, religious, or moral reason. It is generally anticipated, but not always realistic that self-efficacy will have a positive impact on behavior. There are times when self-efficacy will have no or a negative impa ct on performance (Vancouver, Thomspon, Williams, 2001). Bandura (1977, 1986, 1997) suggests that outcome expectations are based largely on the individuals self-efficacy expectations, which generally depend on their judgment about how well they can perform the behavior; can be disassociated with self-efficacy expectations; and are partially separable from self-efficacy judgments when extrinsic outcomes are fixed. Because the outcomes an individual expects are the results of the judgments about what he or she can accomplish, they are unlikely to contribute to predictions of behavior (Bandura, 1977). Judgments about ones self-efficacy is based on four informational sources including enactive attainment, vicarious experience, verbal persuasion and physiological state. The first source, enactive attainment, or the actual performance of a behavior has been described as the most influential source of self-efficacy information (Bandura, 1986,; Bandura Adams, 1977). There has been repeated empirical evidence that actually performing an activity strengthens self-efficacy beliefs due to informational sources (Bandura, 1995). The second source, vicarious experience or visualizing other similar people perform a behavior, also influence self-efficacy (Bandura, Adams, Hardy, Howells, 1980). Conditions that impact vicarious experience include amount of exposure or experience to the behavior (least experience causes greater impact) and amount of instruction given (influence of others is greater with unclear guidelines) (Resnick Galik, 2006). Another source verbal persuasion or exhortation i nvolves telling an individual he or she has the capabilities to master the given behavior. Verbal encouragement from a trusted, credible source in counseling or education form has been used alone to strengthen efficacy expectations (Castro, King, Brassington, 2001; Hitunen et al. 2005; Moore et al., 2006; Resnick, Simpson, et al., 2006). The final information source physiological feedback or state during a behavior can be important in relation to coping with stressors, health functioning, and physical accomplishments. Interventions can be used to alter the interpretation of physiological feedback and help individuals cope with physical sensations, enhancing self efficacy and resulting in improved performance (Bandura Adams, 1977). Propositions. To help test the concept of nurses comfort caring for dying infa

The Title Of Atonement Film Studies Essay

The Title Of Atonement Film Studies Essay The credits begin to be displayed and are in a type writing font, this suggests that a story is going to be told. Throughout the credits there is the sound of a type writer, this again suggest that a story is going to be told. There is a contrast between black and white with the wording Atonement Shot 2 The title of Atonement cuts to a picture of an eccentric mansion. The mansion is a exact replica of Brionys actual house. This sets the scene as it shows where the events of the scene will take place. The mansion represents wealth and is an image of the Talliss new wealth. The natural lighting only highlights one side of the house this could be a representation of appearance versus reality. The family seems like the perfect family on the outside but in the depths of the house they arent as perfect as they seem to be. The highlighted part is what they family wants to portray but the darker side is the reality. The model of the mansion is a childs toy; this shows us that no matter what Briony is still a child. The model mansion belongs to Briony and this symbolises that she runs the house in a sense, as she controls the lives of the people who live or work in the house. The sound of the typewriter represents a story being written, this is a symbol of the story of Atonement. Shot 3 *The tracking of animals represents child play and again symbolises that Briony is still a child. The walking of the animals. The toys may be a connotation of a lost childhood. There is a non syncorised sound, still hearing the typewriter in the background. Shot 4 The camera tilts up, low angle shot, this introduces the character Briony. The composition of the frame shows the Tallis wealth. There is natural light coming through from the window,this is a symbol of innocence. Briony is seen doing what is natural for a child at that time, this again links to the natural light. Shot 5 There is an extream close up of Brionys face. There is natural light, the lighting is soft and can be seen as summer daylight. The one side of Brionys face is lit up well the other is a darker shadow, this signify that Briony still has some innocence but also that she has a dark side that wants secrets. The shot of Brionys eyes symbolises a world through her eyes. She has an intense look on her face showing that she is focusingon typing, the focus on her face enables us , the audience to concentrate on Brionys face. Shot 6 There is still a synchronised sound, we finally see the source of the sound to be a typewriter. The camera pans over Brionys fingers typing this could represent that she is the story teller in this story and that what she wants to happen will happen, as if everyone else is just a character in her story. The words Sunset written on the page may symbolise the ending of the chapter of childhood in Brionys life, it could also signify that things as everyone in the story knows is about to change. Its a closing of the friendship chapter for Cecila and Robbie but also the beginning of a romantic relationship; its the beginning of love as stated on the page. Shot 7 This shot introduces to us the name of the main character, Briony Tallis. The Trials of Arabella is a melodrama therefore has a hero. Story writing is such a big part of Brionys life so she tries to see real life in a story form by always trying to create heros and villians in real life. At first she sees Robbie as a hero for saving her and then a villain because Briony believes he is physically hurting Cecila. Again we can see that Briony is the play-maker of this story, she writes everyones future. Shot 8 In this shot we see Briony wearing a white dress, this could signify that at this time in the movie she is still innocent. The house is shown and we can again see the wealth and new rich of the Tallis family. The servants show that the Tallis family is of a high class. The door frame surronds briony indicating she is the main character. There is stil like sound of the typewriter but is also mixed with the sounds of a piano. The way in which Briony walks is with determination, almost as if she is about to do a very important task. The camera is panning over Briony. We once again see that Briony is a very intense girl, with a very creative mind. Shot 9 The camera follows Briony through the corridors of her house, once again it emphasises on the Familys wealth. Briony is the focus of the frame because she is highlighted by natural light. There is a contrast between the light and shadows; this could signify that the shadows are a representation of secrets and how Briony is in the midst of secrets in her life. The dark shadowed areas may also be a representation of the unknown things Briony bases decisions on. This shot is a long shot and is used to place Briony in her surroundings, it shows how she fits into the house and how she almost controls it with the way she walks, and its almost authoritative. In this shot the pillars seem to capture attention as they can be likened to Briony in the sense that she is such a rigid structure with such intense thoughts, like the pillar that is also a rigid structure. We could also view the pillar as being eccentric and dynamic in its carvings just as Briony is as a person. Briony is all by herse lf, this is another representation that her mind is like her peer pressure for her actions. There is a lot of wood used throughout the house this symoblises warmth and comfort the house provides for Briony but it also represents growth from the fact that it was a living thing, symbol of how the charaters will grow throughtout the movie. Shot 10 We see Briony being very determined in the previous shot but now we see her being so easily distracted by Robbies presence, shows that she wants and interaction between them. We later learn this to be a crush on Robbie. This shot introduces Robbie and shows us, the audience that Robbie and Briony are familiar with each other, by their interaction. Robbie is introduced by being highlighted by natural light .We are now introduced to the different class level in society in the time of the Second World War. This is shown through the fact that Briony is higher the Robbie in the shot and in life as Briony is of a higher class to Robbie, whose mom who actually workers in the house as a housekeeper. We also see Briony looking to the outside just as she will later when she witnesses Cecila stripping in front of the fountain in front of Robbie. This shows us that Briony always has an outside view from the inside of the house. This is a long shot and shows us that although there is familiarity between Briony and Robbie there is still quite a gap between them in their age as well as where they are in their lives at this point in time. There is also quite a dark grey space between them which could symbolise that there is a miscommunication between the feelings each person has for the other. Briony views Robbie as more then a friend or brother figure, while Robbie sees Briony as a sister figure, as he has feelings for Cecila. The fact that Robbie is highlighted by light and Briony is a dark figure could signify the fact that Robbie is the good guy while Briony is the bad guy because of her sin later on, against Robbie. Shot 11 This shot is in reverse view and we are now experiencing world from Brionys point of view and how she sees Robbie. Robbies facial expression is showing his fondness for Briony. As we are seeing this from Brionys point of view, it is misinterpreted and misunderstood for being something more by Briony. Through the conversation we can also see that Robbie is well educated. Brionys point of view shows us that Robbie is centred in the middle, stating he is the most important part right now and that everything else almost fades into the background, he is the centre of her attention. Shot 12 This is a medium close up shot and is very much focused on Briony. There is natural light highlighting one side of her face. This can be represented as her having to sides to her. One being innocent and childlike, while the other dark and full on secrets. The door frame behind Briony can also show many layers just like Briony has. It is like Briony is shedding her layer of her childhood and moving on to a new layer or chapter on life. The layers might also signify what a complex and dynamic person Briony is. Brionys facial expression is almost pleading like she is pleading with Robbie to take notice of her and for him to share the same feelings she has towards him. Shot 13 The camera is tracking Briony here; there is a build-up of music almost stimulating that something drastic is going to happen. We see that Briony is walking away from us in a way and this signifies that Briony is actually walking away from her childhood and maybe even life as she knows it. There is light highlighted on her back, this could show that she is turning her back on everything good and innocent in her life. Briony is walking towards s well lit room as if she is drawn to light. The room is elaborately decorated and this again is a sign of wealth.

Herman Wouks The Winds of War How Should One Read A Book? :: Winds of War Essays

Herman Wouk's   The Winds of War  - How Should One Read A Book?      Ã‚  Ã‚   While reading Herman Wouk's classic tale, The Winds of War, I came across several passages describing a young man's vision of Germany. Although the author supplies me with his ideas, his desire and his provocative details on how this young Major views Germany at the time of the second world war, I still find myself wondering and questioning aspects of the written text before me. Apart from being drawn from my sub-conscious state to a more subtle and unconscious condition, several questions begin to from within my mind. Have I ever seen Germany before? What were the political conditions? What did the SS Stormtroopers look like? What did a concentration camp reveal? By triggering these sensors and somewhat emotional queries within me, the author has already caused a clockwork cycle to commence which will enlighten my reading and eventually create enjoyment and furthering interests with his novel. This is what Virginia Woolf focuses her composition about and emphasizes so very clearly      Ã‚  Ã‚   After reading her essay, I came to grasp and understand her theory that one is best not to accept advice from another on how to read literature, since the best advice is no advice at all. Woolf expresses the conception that when one begins to read literature he begins to enter different stages of interpretation that will ultimately improve his pleasure and satisfaction. It was obvious to me that I had in fact indulged in forms of interpretation when reading literature, but it had never dawned on me until reading Woolf's essay. Whenever I am subjected to something in literature that is not fully comprehensive, I begin to engage in several different forms of interpretation. The first stage would reflect much of the philosophy composed in the essay 'Against Interpretation' whereas I, the reader, would observe the content and then translate the form. Literature induces the reader to use his experience and memories to comprehend what a person, place or thing is and then interpret it. Th econd stage would involve translating where one begins a comparison sequence trying to link their past knowledge with the subject introduced by the author.

Colonial Representations of Natives - the Indian :: Essays Papers

Colonial Representations of Natives - the "Indian" At the outset, it should be noted here that the use of the term "Indian" to describe the aboriginal peoples of North America is somewhat contentious. As is well known, its use derives from Columbus's mistaken belief that he had arrived in the East Indies; and this situating of Natives within an already existent European discourse is in many ways paradigmatic of what was to follow during the centuries of colonisation and settlement. For it should be made clear that the "Indian" is a European invention, and that there has always been a great deal of slippage between the representations of this figure and the realities of the lives of Native North Americans. In fact, the Indian has always represented as much about European fears and concerns as it has about actual Natives. Add to this the fact that the popular image of the Indian has in large part been shaped by commercial considerations - give the audience what it wants to see - and it becomes clear that we are dealing with a very comp lex set of relationships. For this reason, the purpose of this page is principally to outline some of the characteristics of the Indian as he has been created by Europeans, and not to consider the lives of real Natives. Now, the most obvious problem with the term should be that it lumps together all the various nations, ignoring the wide differences which exist between the diverse cultures which originally inhabited the continent. But the masking effect of the stereotype runs deeper than this. As is often the case with Western encounters with alien peoples, the representation bifurcates. What we tend to find is either the "noble savage" or the barbarous, bloodthirsty primitive. The first term here was coined by John Dryden, and conveys the idea of man in a state of nature, untainted by the perceived evils of civilisation, such as avarice or ambition. It is a projection of the fear that somehow the Western way of life has become corrupt, and is in need of redemption. Traces of this view of the Indian are still apparent in the twentieth century, when many people believe Natives to have a kind of spirituality connected to a universal harmony and a balance with the natural world. In the nineteenth centu ry the Canadian poet Charles Mair wrote a long poem called Tecumseh, which included the lines:

The Influence of Michael Jordan in the World of Sports

When someone says the name Michael Jordan, the first thing that might come to mind is basketball, Nike shoes, or Wheaties. Through the years Michael Jordan has proved time and time again that he is the greatest basketball player ever and by doing that he has gained tremendous popularity throughout the world. People of all ages and from all nationalities have gathered to watch him play. â€Å"Even your Aunt Matilda, who might not know anything about basketball, liked watching him play,† said Daniel. He has become more than just an entertainer, he is a hero and a role model. It has been said â€Å"He†s the most famous American in the World† (Daniel.) After winning his sixth National Basketball Association Championship, Michael Jordan has decided to walk away from the world of basketball for the second time in his life. Why would the greatest player to ever play the game leave at the highest point of his career? He claims the sport is no longer a challenge to him. After his many awards, trophies and titles this is not hard to comprehend. At this time in his life, Jordan wants to devote all of his time to his friends and family. Now that he has left the world of basketball a great void has been left. Many questions have rose as to what is going to happen now that he†s gone. What will happen with the NBA? What will happen to the Chicago Bulls dynasty? Who will be the next Michael Jordan? Could there ever be another Michael Jordan? The first thing any sane person would ask is how could Jordan leave basketball and walk away from all of that money? Last year he was the highest paid basketball player in NBA history. But in dollar terms, Jordan was even more successful as a corporate spokesman, which earned him $45 million in 1998, than he was on the basketball court in which he earned $35 million. (Peyser.) Jordan currently does endorsements for thirteen companies. Out of all the companies, Nike pays the most for his endorsements at $16 million per year. Jordan is by far the best endorser out there in the market. Many of the celebrities can†t compare to Jordan. â€Å"He†s handsome, articulate, classy. He had purity to his performance on court and off. It†s hard to find the perfect celebrity these days,† said Peyser. With such slogans as â€Å"Be Like Mike† and â€Å"It†s gotta be the shoes,† companies have attempted to make consumers believe that if they buy their products they too can be as great as Michael Jordan. Now that Jordan has left the NBA, many are speculating on how well his endorsements will do. Experts say that a retired athlete – even Jordan – can†t compete with a guy who†s still winning championships. With the sports-marketing business already in a slump, there may be no heirs to â€Å"Air Jordan† (Peyser.) Even though Jordan has left the basketball court, he†s not going to leave Hollywood anytime soon. There are plans being made to have Jordan star in at least two films but this time he will be acting with a real cast as apposed to the cartoon cast he starred with in Space Jam. â€Å"He should play a character like James Bond,† suggests movie critic Gene Siskel, a rabid Bulls fan. â€Å"I†d pay to see him before Pierce Brosnan any day, wouldn†t you?† Michael Jordan has made a huge impact on the NBA. â€Å"He has won six NBA championships in the last eight years, ten scoring titles, enough Most Valuable Player awards to stock his own wing at the Hall of Fame,† said Tresniowski. He is by far the greatest player to ever play the game. Many believe the NBA would not be where it is without him and now that he†s gone many can†t imagine basketball without him. Everyone is wondering, if there ever be another Michael Jordan. The chance of someone accomplishing the same great feats as Jordan is nearly impossible in today†s NBA. But that doesn†t mean it won†t happen. When Julius Erving left the league many people were asking the same questions. Will there ever be another Dr. J.? Jordan came along, and the rest is history. Ever since the baseball strike the NBA has tremendously gained in popularity, at one time many Americans where questioning, should basketball be the nation†s new past time? Lately, this attitude towards baseball has changed. Mark McGuire and Sammy Sosa have brought the life back to baseball with the breaking of the home run record. With the NBA labor lockout that has canceled most of this season and now that Jordan has left the future of the NBA is yet to be determined. The outlook doesn†t look good. With fear of a season cancellation due to bickering over money, many fans have turned away from NBA basketball in disgust. The NBA†s image has become tarnished. Today†s NBA is nothing like how it was when Jordan came into the league. There is a new breed of players out there. Instead of the rising stars attending college, they are making the jump from high school straight to the NBA. Kobe Bryant is a prime example of this. The major difference between the stars of today and the superstars of yesterday is that many of today†s stars don†t even earn the right to be called stars. Glenn Robinson, now of the Milwaukee Bucks, was asking for a $100 million contract when he came out of Purdue, yet today he is barely worth $1 million. â€Å"You don†t ever want to say ‘never†,† Starr says, â€Å"but I don†t think the NBA will ever again attain the glory it did with Michael.† Even though Jordan was great, we cannot forget about his supporting cast. Without the team to back him up, Jordan would not have been able to accomplish half of what he has done. The Chicago Bulls have been labeled the Team of the 90†³s. No other team since the Boston Celtics has been able to win more than three championships in a row, but the Bulls have done it twice in the past eight years. They probably could have been champions for at least two more years if the team would have stayed healthy and intact. By far, the Chicago Bulls have been hit the hardest with Jordan†s Retirement. The cause of the breakup of possibly the greatest team ever was rumored to be caused by clashes between the players and Bulls management. The breakup started when management wouldn†t pay Phil Jackson what he deserved after bringing six NBA championships to the Bulls. Rather than coach another team, Jackson decided to retire to practice Zen Buddhism fulltime. When Jackson left, Jordan said he wouldn†t play for a new coach. After Jordan left, basketball great, Scottie Pippen was traded to the Houston Rockets. Only four players of last year†s team still remain on the Chicago Bulls roster for this season. Many have made the prediction that the Bulls will lose more games in this shortened season than they did all last year (Stein.) Rebuilding the Chicago Bulls may turn out to be one of the biggest mistakes ever made by the Bulls organization. There will no longer be sell-out crowds every night, sales from Chicago Bulls merchandise will take a nose dive, and all the Fair Weather Fans† will move on to another team. It could take years and millions of dollars before the Bulls will even be able to compete for another title. Many wonder if Jordan will come back to the NBA, after all he did come back before. In 1993, after winning his first three championships, Jordan announced his retirement. He felt he had nothing left to prove and he wanted to try his luck in major league baseball. When his short-lived career in the minor leagues didn†t work out he decided to return to the NBA, (Greene.) While, competition is what Jordan thrives on. It has had both a positive and a negative effect on his life. Jordan being the very competitive person that he is, got in trouble when he was rumored to have a gambling addiction. Many feared that he might have been gambling on NBA games. However, all allegations of illegally betting on NBA games were false and with time Jordan†s image was rebuilt, (Greene.) The chances of Jordan coming back to the NBA are very good. However, if he comes back it won†t be as a player, his new role would be coach. This time he doesn†t have a team to come back to. He is certainly not going to come back to the Bulls and wait for them to rebuild. Jordan will probably always be remembered as the greatest. It will be a long time before anyone can accomplish half of what he has done. As far as the current NBA cast, the experts can†t see anyone replacing him for a long time. Not only does it take the skills but it also requires a certain set of values to become a role model. Many stars of the NBA lack both of these qualities. But somewhere out there is a young child with dreams of becoming the next Michael Jordan. He is on every playground all around the world. He has the endless desire to make something out of himself. Basketball could be his only chance out of the current situation that he is in, and it is only a matter of time before he will have his big break, (Starr.) Some might think it†s hard to imagine the effects that one man can have on the game of basketball, but when you look at our society and how much we tend to focus on athletes in the sports world it†s really not that hard at all. Michael Jordan played more than the role of a basketball player. He was a hero, a product endorser, and a corner stone in a major corporation, and to the teams that he beat night after night, an enemy. Now that he is gone from the game no one really knows what will happen all anyone can do is speculate. Even though he has left the basketball court, chances are he won†t be leaving your TV quite that soon. The people that will miss him the most are his former teammates and the die-hard fans that loved to watch him night after night. The Chicago Bulls may never reach the greatness that they once achieved but they will always have the memories. It†s hard to tell who will take Jordan†s place, it could be safe to say that no one will ever be able to, but that doesn†t mean there won†t be anyone better than Jordan. Only time will tell. The die-hard Chicago Bulls fans will always hold a special place in their heart for Michael Jordan. They will tell their sons and daughters about him, they will get out the old VHS tapes of games that they have recorded and they will pass along the Basketball cards that will be worth hundreds of dollars. Those of us who have seen him play will always remember him and what he has done for the game of basketball. For those who haven†t, you will have to settle for the endless highlight reels and Nike commercials to keep his memory alive.

The Forest – Creative Writing

Descriptive Writing – The forest. [pic] A crisp winter morning and there was a frosty chill in the air. A sweet surrendering scent of the moist morning dew that cascades all around the sublime forest. The mixed cool autumn leaves from the tall trees lay scattered on the forest floor; they were in the motion of turning a brittle brown. There was the sound of shattered glass that emphasised the leaves being crunched, as if you were to step on them, pushing their papery remains deep into the brilliant white snow, which lined the ground like a fresh white cotton sheet. The passive and daunting forest has the appeal of a forgotten land, which has been lost in time. The isolated forest remained in a capsule, untouched by the destructive essence of man. The dark shadows of the voluminous trees and puzzled bushes had become the structure of the forest. The trees stood proud and tall as protectors of the exigent grounds, as the impregnated bushes that had consumed the hard regions of the forest, concealed the land from beneath the vibrant portals of the open sky. The isolated forest has the appearance of winter romance which blossomed, alluring your mind deeper and deeper into the enchanted land. As the wintery sun rose in a timely hurry, as if trying to make up for setting so early the evening before, the sun bloomed into the sky with a warm mellow glow. Sending what was left of the dull moon packing until his next stint overlooking the night. The dusky sky, was a brilliantly bright baby blue, and perched picturesquely on the autumn branches of the trees in the forest below. As the morning developed the sounds of young birds began to fulfil the air with a delicious spritz. They chirped, tweeted and warbled incessantly. The lake had been hardened by the sharp cold blitz of an icy frost. The translucent water was bound as a smooth solid and the particles of the water reflected a sheer shine of gleam and glitz, that could only be disrupted by the sharp razor blades that ice skates posses. Whispers of the remaining snowflakes were on top of the tranquil ice; these blew in the breeze over into the depths of the forest. As the mellow winter sun rises over the hard reflective lake the water shows parts of itself melting into a liquid, which is so cold that it could freeze in an absolute instance. The sheen of reflection on the arctic water from the glowing sun sparkles in the tranquil air, with the light reflecting, unique combinations of blue hues and pearlescent purples. The land is isolate and derelict from the prospects of busy city life. Tranquillity and idealistic bliss are forth seen in the deep depths of the forest as well as the environments sublime intake of the wintry season. The tall trees posses a sweet serenity that keeps all safe in the forest from delinquent harm and stark human demoralisation. Sheets of thick white cloudy snow preserve the gritty grounds beneath as well as the silky sheets of ice that protect fresh organic water.